The Space Race: “Prestige as Important as Power”

Upon the Soviet Union’s launching of Sputnik during 1957, the United States came to the understanding that on top of illustrating the overwhelming power and advancements of the American military establishment, it was time for the United States to illustrate more “power and prestige” within their outer space programs. Americans told themselves, and who knows whether this was a possibility or not, that the “Soviets posed danger that was infinite in duration,” as President Eisenhower said in his commencement speech. Now everyone knows about the launching of Sputnik by the Soviets, the placing of a man on the moon by the Americans and the outcome of the Cold War that would result in an “American victory,” and ignoring all the speeches made by “so and so” or what side did what, I pose the question: why was the space race between the Soviets and the Americans so significant to the underlying purpose of the Cold War?

Though the United States was “victorious” upon the conclusion of the Cold War, I nonetheless believe that the Soviet Union got the better of the United States during a war that could be characterized by one word: stalemate. The United focused heavily on their military establishment, specifically that of nuclear weapons, because the Soviets were doing so. The United State then began to focus heavily on the space race, due to the launching of Sputnik. While many view the Cold War as one of Democracy versus Communism or “good versus evil”, I like to view the Cold War as a number of chess moves, the Space Race being a significant move, taking place in a game of chess between the Soviets and the Americans.

Still, why was the “space race” so significant in the Cold War, war being defined as the waging of armed conflict against an enemy. The last time I checked, a “waging of armed conflict”, such as the nuclear weapons that both sides possessed, had nothing to do with a “race to space”. The bottom line is that there is no “right answer” to my question. The United State and the Soviet Union simply got caught up in beating one another in any aspect, whether that be arms or space, and if the Soviets were to harvest a lot of corn, I’m sure the United States would come back at them, working hard to harvest that much more corn than the Soviet Union. In the end, the reason for the “space race” between the Soviets and the Americans can simply be viewed as either side making a move in “their game of chess” that would substantially prove their power and prestige.

The Atomic Energy Commission: Promoting Peace and Advancement

The dropping of atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan caused the world to understand the power of such weapons, moreover realizing the danger such weapons could have if the “wrong people” controlled them. The United States government worked to construct a committee or commission that could successfully control the development and management of both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. To put it simple, the United States government wanted to establish a system that would both control the supervision and progression of nuclear power/nuclear weapons, as well as exemplifying to other nations that nuclear power has more uses other than to use them in a time of war, thus promoting peace. For that reason, The Atomic Energy Commission was established.

At the conclusion of World War II, “debates over the domestic (at home in the United States) control of atomic energy began. Two major bills affected the debate over atomic energy: the May-Johnson Bill and the McMahon Bill. The May-Johnson Bill, the earlier of the two bills, was proposed on October 3rd, 1945. This bill advised that only the United States government have control over the use of atomic power, simply because that would be the only way to prevent the misuse of atomic power. Yet, other aspects of the May-Johnson Bill were more radical. In other words, the bill was devised as a means to preserve military control over nuclear research, a situation that would be acceptable during wartime, but was most certainly undesirable during a time of peace when free science exchange should be carried on. Though this specific aspect of the May-Johnson Bill is one that I strongly disagree with, I do believe that this bill paved the way for the suitable McMahon Bill.

Due to the organization of scientific opposition, the development of the May-Johnson Bill was slowed to the point where it was evident that the May-Johnson Bill would not pass, forcing the construction of another bill, one that would be upheld within all the branches of the government. As a result, the McMahon Bill was proposed. In doing so, the United States government concluded how they would manage and control the nuclear technology it was developing. The McMahon Bill, also known as the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, concluded that both nuclear weapon development and nuclear power management would be under civilian control, not military control. Moreover, the McMahon Bill aimed to permit the exchanging of atomic and nuclear information with other nations, specifically those that were allies of the United States. As a whole, the McMahon Bill was a safer and smarter strategy towards the control over atomic power and the interchanging of information. President Truman signed the bill on August 1st, 1946, and the McMahon Bill went into effect on January 1st, 1947, thus establishing what became known as the United States Atomic Energy Commission.

The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was established more than a year after the conclusion of World War II. The chief objection of the AEC was to promote and control the peacetime advancement of atomic science and technology. Most importantly, the AEC successfully removed the control over atomic energy from the military, placing complete control in civilian hands. In addition, the Atomic Energy Commission revealed the United States postwar hopefulness. The United States wanted to show the world that atomic power could and should not be utilized only in the form of nuclear weapons as a means of defense, but also promoting world peace, ultimately as a means to better civilization.

Johannes Stark: Gaining Power Through Politics

Johannes Stark is, through my eyes, the most famous Nazi scientist of the many that willingly participated with the National Socialists. The flagrant anti-Semitism that Stark illustrated through his vicious attacks on the ideas of modern physics, along with a number of physicists, made him both an “intriguing subject and the perfect villain” (Walker 5). Stark used his political leverage as a dedicated “National Socialist” to achieve his goals, not only becoming a well-respected man throughout much of the Third Reich, but also having a significant influence over science in Germany. I am not writing this blog to speak of Johannes Stark’s long, story-filled career as a Nazi scientist, but, I am writing this blog in regard to Stark’s movement (co-founder with Phillip Lenard), Deutsche Physik. Stark used this “movement” and his anti-Semitism as a means to gain power and influence within the Third Reich.

Before the shift in control over Germany took place, Stark was a conservative German scientist looking to strengthen his career and power. Stark concluded that it was necessary to make a connection with politics as “a weapon to use against those who had kept him a pariah for so long” (Walker 13).

At the time, around the year 1923, Germany was still recovering from the humiliation that was suffered at the conclusion of World War I, looking for a government and leader that would successfully lead Germany into the future. Seeing that the Weimar Republic was a weak puppet government, one set up in hope of spreading the ideals behind Democracy, it was clear that Germany would not simply transform into a Democratic state, thus causing a plethora of underground movements to occur. The biggest of these underground movements was Hitler and his National Socialist movement. Stark publicly supported the NSDAP and he would conform to the beliefs of the National Socialists as a means to better his career. And though it is evident that Stark truly was an anti-Semite, he nonetheless used his hatred for Jews with the intention of establishing a link with the political figures of the NSDAP, giving Stark the power and influence that he so desperately desired, thus permitting him to quickly rise within the ranks of German scientists.

The Deutsche Physik movement emphasized three characteristics: oppose modern physics as a conservative physicist, oppose Jewish scientists and “the physics they created” (Walker 13), and lastly, the opposition of the internationalist stand by the nationalist scientist of Germany. If this “movement” is not a brainless, unintelligent method in promoting future progression in science, than I don’t know what is. And Mark Walker accurately summed up the Deutsche Physik movement what he stated that, “These physicists had nothing new to offer in the way of science, and are best characterized by what they rejected” (Walker 13).

Johannes Stark shared little in common with his fellow German scientists. In fact, Stark was neither recognized nor respected throughout much of the scientific community in Germany, even though he won a Novel Prize in 1921, being viewed as a vicious, close-minded. Yet Stark convinced himself that he had the “right ideas” necessary to promote successful progress in the field of science, and when Stark realized that the Weimar Republic was not willing to give him the opportunity to “oversee” the study of science in Germany, Stark selfishly looked to the NSDAP, conforming in hopes of raising his status within Germany’s scientific community. “Stark found in National Socialist circles the honor and recognition as an important scientist that his fellow academics had denied him” (Walker 15). Thanks to Hitler and the National Socialists, Stark gained a great deal of influence over science in Germany, and his “reach”, meaning what he could accomplish and what he couldn’t, extended far, even awarding him with two presidencies over important scientific institutions.

However, Stark’s attempt to control the studies being done and the works being published, as a sort of totalitarian leader over science in Germany, came to an end in 1937 when it became apparent that Stark threatened both intellectual and scientific freedom. Stark’s strong support for Hitler and the National Socialists carried him only so far, overtime becoming clear that he was not qualified to hold any sort of high-ranking position in a scientific community that was, and should always be, solely based on the “brain” of the scientist. Johannes Stark used his conservative stance, his anti-Semitism and his support for the NSDAP as a mean to gain positions within the scientific community that he was most definitely not qualified for and it was Stark’s Deutsche Physik movement that allowed him to establish a short-lived favorable connection with the NSDAP.

Albert Einstein: A Geniuses View on Politics

Albert Einstein was a German born Theoretical physicist. Einstein is best known for assembling the concept behind the Theory of Relativity, in particular the mass-energy equivalence of E = mc2, as well as receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his “services to Theoretical Physics”. Einstein’s work affected a number of other fields outside of Physics and the name Einstein overtime became synonymous with the term genius, but I am not writing this blog to speak of the plethora of accomplishments Einstein experienced throughout his life, nor do I intend to write about his many works published or why he was named the greatest physicist of all time. Instead, I chose to take a detailed look into the later life of Albert Einstein and just how he was affected by the politics of his time. You see, Einstein lived during a time period in which he was vastly shaped by the fame that came along with being a “genius”, forcing Einstein to become heavily involved in politics.

Albert Einstein had first hand experience with a number of dark periods in history, and whether it be World War I, World War II or the Cold War, Einstein wrote and spoke of one thing: peace. Einstein didn’t want any involvement with politics, simply hoping to continue his successful career as both a scientist and mathematician. Yet, with intensifying demands, Einstein’s involvement in politics increased, forcing him to make new relations with both scholars and political figures in a variety of countries, though Einstein didn’t oppose the idea of meeting new people. Nonetheless, Einstein disliked the fact that he was making these “new acquaintances” simply because his opinion or stance on the politics of that nation was desired. The travels that Einstein participated in as a means to meet with political figures affected him greatly, specifically in terms of achieving the valuable isolation that he needed to do his work.

Due to the fame and genius of Einstein, the mathematician/scientist found himself being called upon to make definite judgments on issues that certainly had nothing to do with physics or mathematics. However, Einstein was fearless and of the utmost awareness of the world surrounding him, with no illusion that ignoring politics would result in world events to fade away. In turn, Einstein simply spoke his opinion on the situation, further allowing him to speak and write both honestly and freely on politics ranging from Nazi Germany to the Cold War era. And though Einstein did issue his opinions on a variety of issues within the world of politics, I believe that Einstein’s stance on politics was simple. Einstein believed in peace and as a German Jew, he only desired to live in a world where he could study the fields of physics and mathematics. Unfortunately, Einstein was forced into becoming involved with politics in a variety of countries, yet he did it with his head held high, sticking to his ideals of speaking freely and honestly and that is what made Einstein a man of true greatness.

The Hydrogen Bomb: How President Truman Pushed for the Creation of the Super

The result of World War II illustrated to the world the significant impact that scientists could, and would in the future; have when it came to the art of war. And now that the ideas behind constructing the atomic bomb were known and understood to the members of the scientific community, it simply led to scientists to attempt in creating a weapon that would be even more effective than the atomic bomb. Granted the fact that scientists were aware that their findings could have other effects, positive ones, on the world, they were nonetheless aware that their findings would be used in war. Regardless, the influential impact that scientists had on war resulted in members of the scientific community in becoming more involved with politics and national security.

Yet, the immediate response following World War II was that there was no pressure to build a new bomb. As time passed, American scientists familiarized themselves with the new weapon, having both more potential and power than the atomic bomb, referred to as the hydrogen bomb or the super, a nuclear weapon that produces a large amount of its energy through nuclear fusion and can be over a thousand times more powerful in comparison to the atomic bomb. Yet, “the idea of such a bomb had arisen entirely within the scientific, and there it initially remained”. Unfortunately American scientists very well knew that it was only a matter of time before the development of the hydrogen bomb became possible and as Teller said, “It is out of our powers to prevent it. All that we can do is to retard its completion by some years”. Teller spoke of slowing down the construction of the hydrogen bomb because he, along with a number of other American scientists, was conscious of the potential damages and killing power that a weapon such as the super could cause.

As the potential for international control became smaller due to the Communist Soviets and the impact they were having on other countries, Truman and the United States government concluded that it would be necessary for the United States to represent their power through scientific developments, most notable the hydrogen bomb. Furthermore, due to lobbying by scientists, military leaders and members of the Congress, it was agreed upon that the United States had no other choice but to embark on a “crash program to build the H-Bomb”. However, unlike the atomic bomb, which was connected to peaceful reactor progress, the hydrogen bomb was “strictly weapons development”.

On the contrary, a number of scientists and influential individuals disagreed with the “crash program” to construct the hydrogen bomb. The General Advisory Committee's Majority and Minority Reports on building the hydrogen bomb stated that even if the Russians were to succeed in constructing such a weapon, the fact that we, the United States, did not partake in the “race” to build the hydrogen bomb would be a “deterrent to them”, them being the Soviet Union. Along with that, the members of the committee were aware that the use of such a weapon would “bring about the destruction of innumerable human lives”, and for that reason, the refuted the idea of building the hydrogen bomb. Nonetheless, as time passed, the appearance of the hydrogen bomb was made more and more frightening, resulting in the public and the government to fear that the Soviets would get their hands on such weapons first. And for that reason, President Truman concluded that it was necessary for the United States to construct the hydrogen bomb.

In the beginning of 1951, President Truman informed the United States that work would be done in hope of successfully building the hydrogen bomb. “I have directed the Atomic Energy Commission to continue its work on all forms of atomic weapons, including the so-called hydrogen or superbomb Like all other work in the field of atomic weapons, it is being carried forward on a basis consistent with the overall objectives of our program for peace and security. This we shall continue to do until a satisfactory plan for international control of atomic energy is achieved.”

As President Truman stated above, the reason for creating such a powerful weapon as the hydrogen bomb was simply a means to uphold peace and national security. Though I hate to believe that deadly weapons must be created in order to preserve national security, I agree with the move that President Truman made, most notably because he did it to make his fellow American feel safe. In addition, I feel that Truman did what he did because he was aware that if the United States possessed such power, the Soviet Union would not only be forced into a stalemate, a scenario that would later prove to be true, but the United States would further illustrate their intelligence and power.

The American Atomic Bomb

The Americans were certainly aware of the fact that the Germans were working hard to construct nuclear weapons, weapons that would ultimately change the face and strategies behind the art of war. President Truman knew that if the Germans were, and I stress were, to successfully construct nuclear weapons, then control of the war, a war that was slowly heading towards defeat for the Germans and its fellow allies, would be placed in the hands of the Germans. At that point it became clear to the United States that they haad no other choice but to cancel out the Germans efforts by successfully constructing nuclear weapons of their own. Similar to beating the communists to the moon (a symbol of superiority and power), the United States trusted that the scientists involved in the Manhattan Project would be successful in creating nuclear weapons before the Nazi scientists. Clearly the Americans beat the Germans to the punch (though many question the efforts of the German scientists). Once the United States had the power of nuclear weapons in their hands, World War II was all but over.

By 1945, Nazi Germany was nearing defeat and Germany's fellow key player, Japan, gasped for air as defeat became more and more of a realization. And in the summer of 1945, the Allies ended World War II, forcing both Germany and Japan to surrender when the United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan, one on Hiroshima and one on Nagasaki. So in the end, the "good guys". Yet the question still lingers: were the Americans just in udsing the atomic bomb as a means to end World War II?

It was clear that Germany and Japan were more than ready to fight under any circumstances, surrender not being an option. And because Germany was so depleted by the summer of 1945, the United States turned their forces towards Japan, successfully using the atomic bomb as a means to end World War II, along with showing the world their superiority and power. The awfulness of nuclear weapons was a horrifying reality, causing people in the present to fear the possible use of another nuclear weapon (now a days referred to as weapons of mass destruction), further proving the significant impact science has on the art of war.

Did German Scientists Truly Try to Construct Nuclear Weapons?

During World War II, it was clear that both the United States and Nazi Germany looked into the possibility of constructing nuclear weapons, weapons that were so destructive that they were often considered inhumane. The United States illustrated the horrific capabilities of the atomic bomb when they dropped one bomb on Hiroshima and another on Nagasaki. Claiming that it was done to end World War II, the United Staes proved both their scientific superiority and their overall power as a nation. This led many to wonder why the Germans didn't construct or go as far as to use nuclear weapons, considering that the Nazis would have no issue with using such a weapon if it were to result in vicotry. For that reason, it leads to the question: did Nazi scientists truly attempt to build nuclear weapons?

Following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the German scientists that were working at Farm Hall, an English country house near Cambridge, reported a number of claims to the authorities. Some stated that they viewed the United States use of the atomic bomb as "madness", "inhuman" and simply wrong as a means to end World War II, while others spoke of the disgrace and embarassment that was caused by the American scientific superiority. Other than the disgrace and embarassment that the Germans felt over their inferiority, I find it very hard to believe anything that is said by the scientists that worked at Farm Hall. Anyone and everyone who took place in the experimentation at Farm Hall are Nazi scientists and no matter what their excuse is for working with the Nazis, they had a hand in the unsuccessfull attempt to construct an atomic bomb for Nazi Germany.

Therefore, I belive that it is nieve for anyone to claim that Nazi scientists didn't attempt or try to construct nuclear weapons. The Nazis were simply beat to the punch by the United States. For anyone to believe that Nazi scientists didn't put effort into the construction of nuclear weapons as a means of denying Hitler and Nazi Germany of the power that nuclear weapons posess is simply wrong. The men who worked at Farm Hall, whether they believed in National Socialism or not, were monitored on a daily base and were frequently reporting back to high-ranking Nazi officials. The fact of the matter is that there is evidence and proof that the Nazis put a significant amount of effort into constructing nuclear weapons. For that reason, whether out of fear or the idea of advancement, it is apparent that Nazi scientists simpy failed in accomplishing the construction of nuclear weapons, and certainly not because they didnt try.